Reasons for absenteeism in rural primary schools in two Colombian municipalities / Razones de ausentismo en escuelas primarias rurales de dos municipios colombianos / Razões do não comparecimento nas escolas primarias rurais nos municípios colombianos

Background: School absenteeism is a considerable problem generally related to higher dropout rates, poor academic achievement and school lag. This study determined the frequency and causes of overall and illness-related absenteeism of students in rural schools from two Colombian municipalities. Methods: A prospective and descriptive study was conducted in a population of 948 school children from 34 rural schools. Absenteeism data were collected for 2013 academic year consisted of the number of students registered and absent by grade, school, day and reason for absence. Absence rates (overall and illness-related absenteeism) were recorded, based on full or partial days absence, measured both as episodes, and accumulating the number of days. Results: From the students included in the study, 55.1% were male and 71.6% were between 5 and 9 years old. The overall absence rate was 5.7 episodes per child-year (95% confidence interval 5.5 to 5.8) and 8.6 days per child-year (8.4 to 8.9). The main reasons for non-attendance were illness (24.4%), medical or dental check-up (12.9%), travel (12.3%), lack of motivation to attend school (10.0%) and bad weather (9.3%). The illness- related absence rate was 1.4 episodes per child-year (95% confidence interval 1.3 to 1.5) and 2.5 days per child-year (2.4 to 2.6). The main reasons for illness-related absence were cold (37.0%), nonspecific fever (10.9%) and stomach pain or vomiting (8.4%). Conclusions: In this study, the most common reasons for non-attendance were illness-related. The importance of respiratory and gastrointestinal infections in absenteeism was evident, showing rates similar to other urban school studies. Then, the results of this study provide knowledge on the magnitude and reasons for absenteeism in rural schoolchildren.

Antecedentes. El ausentismo escolar es un problema importante relacionado con altas tasas de abandono escolar, bajo rendimiento académico y rezago escolar. Este estudio determinó la frecuencia y las causas del ausentismo general y el ausentismo relacionado con la enfermedad en estudiantes de escuelas rurales de dos municipios de Colombia. Métodos. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo en una población de 948 escolares de 34 escuelas rurales. Los datos de ausentismo recopilados para el año 2013 consistieron en el número de episodios y días de ausentismo por grado y motivo de ausencia general y por enfermedad. Se calcularon las tasas de ausentismo general y por enfermedad. Resultados. El 55,1% de la población participante eran hombres y el 71,6% tenían entre 5 y 9 años. La tasa de ausentismo general fue 5,7 episodios por niño-año, IC 95% (5,5-5,8) y 8,6 días por niño-año, IC 95% (8,4-8,9). Las principales razones del ausentismo fueron enfermedades (24,4%), chequeo médico u odontológico (12,9%), viajes (12,3%), falta de motivación para asistir a la escuela (10,0%) y mal clima (9,3%). La tasa de ausentismo por enfermedad fue 1,4 episodios por niño-año IC 95% (1,3-1,5) y 2,5 días por niño-año IC 95% (2,4-2,6). Las principales razones del ausentismo por enfermedad fueron el resfriado común (37,0%), la fiebre inespecífica (10,9%) y el dolor de estómago o vómito (8,4%). Conclusiones. Las razones más comunes para la no asistencia estuvieron relacionadas con la enfermedad. La importancia de las infecciones respiratorias y gastrointestinales en el absentismo fue evidente, mostrando tasas similares a las de otros estudios en escuelas urbanas. Los resultados de este estudio proporcionan conocimiento sobre la magnitud y las razones del absentismo en la población escolar rural.

Antecedentes. O absentismo escolar é um grande problema relacionado às altas taxas de evasão escolar, baixo desempenho acadêmico e atraso escolar. Este estudo determinou a frequência e causas do não comparecimento geral e por doenças em estudantes de escolas rurais de dois municípios da Colômbia. Métodos. Estudo descritivo, realizado em uma população de 948 escolares de 34 escolas rurais. Os dados de absentismo coletados para 2013 consistiram no número de episódios e dias de não comparecimento por grau e motivo da ausência geral e por doença, foram calculadas as taxas de cada evento. Resultados. 55,1% da população participante eram crianças masculinas do primeiro grau, 71,6% entre 5 e 9 anos de idade. A taxa geral de absentismo foi de 5,7 episódios por criança-ano, IC95% (5,5-5,8) e 8,6 dias por criança-ano, IC95% (8,4-8,9). Os principais motivos do não comparecimento foram doenças (24,4%), check-up médico ou odontológico (12,9%), viagens (12,3%), falta de motivação para frequentar a escola (10,0%) e mau tempo (9,3%). A taxa de absentismo da doença foi de 1,4 episódios por IC95% criança-ano (1,3-1,5) e 2,5 dias por IC95% criança-ano (2,4-2,6). Os principais motivos da ausência de doença foram resfriado comum (37,0%), febre inespecífica (10,9%) e dor de estômago ou vômito (8,4%). Conclusões. Os motivos mais comuns de não comparecimento foram relacionados à doença. A importância das infecções respiratórias e gastrointestinais no absenteísmo foi evidente, mostrando taxas semelhantes às de outros estudos em escolas urbanas. Os resultados deste estudo fornecem informações sobre a magnitude e as razões para evasão escolar na população escolar rural.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices about dengue among pupils from rural schools in Colombia / Conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre dengue en estudiantes de escuelas rurales en Colombia

Abstract Introduction: Dengue is a public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Studies on dengue in rural areas are scarce since the disease is considered mainly urban. Objective: To determine the knowledge (K), attitudes (A) and practices (P) of dengue in an endemic area in Colombia. Materials and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study with 515 pupils (7-16 years old) in 34 rural schools in Anapoima and La Mesa municipalities during 2011. Each KAP category was evaluated independently by a scoring system and then categorized into high, medium or low. Results: Pupils recognized knowledge variables such as the symptoms (fever, bone pain), transmission route (mosquito bites), and mosquito breeding sites (uncovered wáter tanks, solid waste). Average scores on attitude were high in both municipalities indicating a well-developed perception of disease severity. Seeking treatment in medical centers and self-medication for fever management and the use of mosquito net and space-spraying of insecticides were the most frequently identified practices. Discussion: This is the first KAP dengue study performed in a rural area in Colombia and as such it contributes to the understanding of dengue perceptions by the inhabitants of these areas. It showed a medium level of knowledge about dengue and a lower level of preventive practices in pupils from rural schools. It also showed that pupils considered space-spraying as crucial for vector control. The presence of the vector in rural areas of the country underlines the need to improve surveillance and education to more effectively control the vector and promote prevention methods including community participation.

Resumen Introducción. El dengue es un problema de salud pública en las regiones tropicales y subtropicales del mundo. Los estudios sobre la enfermedad en áreas rurales son escasos debido a que se presenta principalmente en los núcleos urbanos. Objetivo. Determinar los conocimientos, las actitudes y las prácticas sobre el dengue en un área rural endémica en Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio transversal con 515 estudiantes, entre los 7 y los 16 años de edad en 34 escuelas rurales de los municipios de Anapoima y La Mesa en el 2011. Cada categoría se evaluó por separado con un puntaje clasificado como alto, medio o bajo. Resultados. Los estudiantes reconocieron los síntomas (fiebre, dolor de huesos), la ruta de transmisión (picadura de mosquitos) y los criaderos (depósitos de agua destapados, residuos sólidos). El promedio de los puntajes de actitudes fue alto en ambos municipios, lo que indica que percibían la gravedad del dengue. Las prácticas más frecuentes de tratamiento de la fiebre fueron la consulta médica y la automedicación, en tanto que los métodos de control más frecuentes fueron el uso de mosquiteros y el rociamiento con insecticidas. Discusión. Este es el primer estudio de conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas sobre el dengue en un área rural de Colombia. Los resultados contribuyen a entender las percepciones de la enfermedad en sus habitantes y evidenciaron niveles medios de conocimiento y puntuaciones bajas en cuanto a las prácticas entre los estudiantes de las escuelas rurales. Los estudiantes consideraron que la fumigación es importante para el control del vector. La presencia del mosquito en áreas rurales del país resalta la necesidad de mejorar la vigilancia y la educación para lograr un control efectivo del vector y promover métodos de prevención que incluyan la participación comunitaria.

Changing paradigms in Aedes control: considering the spatial heterogeneity of dengue transmission / Cambio de paradigma en el control de Aedes: consideración de la heterogeneidad espacial de la transmisión del dengue

ABSTRACT Current dengue vector control strategies, focusing on reactive implementation of insecticide-based interventions in response to clinically apparent disease manifestations, tend to be inefficient, short-lived, and unsustainable within the worldwide epidemiological scenario of virus epidemic recrudescence. As a result of a series of expert meetings and deliberations, a paradigm shift is occurring and a new strategy, using risk stratification at the city level in order to concentrate proactive, sustained efforts in areas at high risk for transmission, has emerged. In this article, the authors 1) outline this targeted, proactive intervention strategy, within the context of dengue epidemiology, the dynamics of its transmission, and current Aedes control strategies, and 2) provide support from published literature for the need to empirically test its impact on dengue transmission as well as on the size of disease outbreaks. As chikungunya and Zika viruses continue to expand their range, the need for a science-based, proactive approach for control of urban Aedes spp. mosquitoes will become a central focus of integrated disease management planning.

RESUMEN Las estrategias actuales de control de vectores del dengue, centradas en la ejecución reactiva de intervenciones con insecticidas en respuesta a la aparición de cuadros clínicos evidentes de la enfermedad, suelen ser ineficientes, de duración limitada e insostenibles en el contexto epidemiológico mundial, caracterizado por la recrudescencia de las epidemias virales. Como resultado de una serie de reuniones y deliberaciones entre expertos, está en proceso un cambio de paradigma y ha surgido una nueva estrategia, que consiste en estratificar el riesgo de cada ciudad para concentrar y mantener los esfuerzos proactivos donde hay un alto riesgo de transmisión. En este artículo, los autores 1) describen esta estrategia de intervención específica y proactiva dentro del contexto de las características epidemiológicas del dengue, la dinámica de su transmisión y las estrategias actuales de control de Aedes y 2) fundamentan con fuentes bibliográficas la necesidad de demostrar empíricamente las repercusiones de esta estrategia sobre la transmisión del dengue y el tamaño de los brotes. Dado que los virus del chikunguña y el Zika siguen ampliando su alcance, uno de los objetivos primordiales de la planificación de la atención integrada de estas enfermedades estará determinado por la necesidad de adoptar un enfoque científico y proactivo del control urbano de los mosquitos del género Aedes.

Spatial modeling of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Andean region of Colombia

The objective of this research was to identify environmental risk factors for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Colombia and map high-risk municipalities. The study area was the Colombian Andean region, comprising 715 rural and urban municipalities. We used 10 years of CL surveillance: 2000-2009. We used spatial-temporal analysis - conditional autoregressive Poisson random effects modelling - in a Bayesian framework to model the dependence of municipality-level incidence on land use, climate, elevation and population density. Bivariable spatial analysis identified rainforests, forests and secondary vegetation, temperature, and annual precipitation as positively associated with CL incidence. By contrast, livestock agroecosystems and temperature seasonality were negatively associated. Multivariable analysis identified land use - rainforests and agro-livestock - and climate - temperature, rainfall and temperature seasonality - as best predictors of CL. We conclude that climate and land use can be used to identify areas at high risk of CL and that this approach is potentially applicable elsewhere in Latin America.

Prospective birth cohort in a hyperendemic dengue area in Northeast Brazil: methods and preliminary results / Coorte de nascimento prospectiva em uma área hiperendêmica em dengue no Nordeste do Brasil: métodos e resultados preliminares / Cohorte de nacimientos en un área hiperendémica en dengue en el nordeste de Brasil: métodos y resultados preliminares

Abstract Dengue cases have increased in younger age groups in Brazil. Maternal anti-dengue antibodies can have a protective effect in the first months of life, but their decline can increase the risk of severe dengue. A prospective birth cohort was established in 2011-2012 in the city of Recife, Pernambuco State, Brazil, to determine the incidence of serotype-specific dengue infection and the kinetics of transferred maternal anti-dengue antibodies in the first years of life. This article describes the design, methods and preliminary results of this cohort study. 354 children underwent clinical and laboratory monitoring for two years, with 15% losses to follow-up. The overall rate of new infections was approximately 10% in the first year of follow-up. Information on the force of serotype-specific dengue infection and the evaluation of transferred maternal antibodies can contribute to understanding dengue etiopathogenesis.

Resumo Casos de dengue têm aumentado em grupos etários mais jovens no Brasil. Anticorpos antidengue maternos podem exercer efeito protetor nos primeiros meses de vida, mas seu declínio pode aumentar o risco de dengue grave. Uma coorte de nascimento prospectiva foi estabelecida na cidade do Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil, entre 2011-2012, para determinar a incidência de infecção sorotipo-específica do dengue e cinética dos anticorpos antidengue materno-transferidos nos primeiros anos de vida. Este artigo descreve o desenho, os métodos e resultados preliminares deste estudo de coorte. Trezentas e cinquenta e quatro crianças foram acompanhadas clínico e laboratorialmente por dois anos, com 15% de perdas de seguimento. A taxa global de novas infecções foi de aproximadamente 10% na coorte de crianças no primeiro ano de seguimento. Informações sobre a força de infecção sorotipo-específica do dengue nos primeiros anos de vida, bem como a avaliação da cinética de anticorpos materno-transferidos poderão contribuir para a compreensão da etiopatogenia da doença.

Resumen Los casos de dengue han aumentado en los grupos de edad más jóvenes en Brasil. Los anticuerpos antidengue maternos pueden ejercer un efecto protector en los primeros meses de vida, pero su decremento puede aumentar el riesgo de dengue grave. Una cohorte de nacimientos prospectiva se estableció en la ciudad de Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil, entre 2011-2012, para determinar la incidencia de infección serotipo-específica de dengue y la cinética de los anticuerpos antidengue materno-transferidos durante los primeros años de vida. Este artículo describe el diseño, los métodos y resultados preliminares de este estudio de cohorte. 354 niños fueron acompañados clínicamente y en laboratorio durante dos años, con un 15% de pérdidas en el seguimiento. La tasa global de nuevas infecciones fue de aproximadamente un 10% en la cohorte de niños durante el primer año de seguimiento. La información sobre la fuerza de infección serotipo-específica del dengue en los primeros años de vida, así como la evaluación de la cinética de los anticuerpos materno-transferidos, podrá contribuir a la comprensión de la etiopatogenia de la enfermedad.

Evaluation of diagnostic tests for Wuchereria bancrofti infection in Brazilian schoolchildren

Introduction Since the launch of the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis, more than 70% of the endemic countries have implemented mass drug administration (MDA) to interrupt disease transmission. The monitoring of filarial infection in sentinel populations, particularly schoolchildren, is recommended to assess the impact of MDA. A key issue is choosing the appropriate tools for these initial assessments (to define the best intervention) and for monitoring transmission. Methods This study compared the pre-MDA performance of five diagnostic methods, namely, thick film test, Knott's technique, filtration, Og4C3-ELISA, and the AD12-ICT card test, in schoolchildren from Brazil. Venous and capillary blood samples were collected between 11 pm and 1 am. The microfilarial loads were analyzed with a negative binomial regression, and the prevalence and associated 95% confidence intervals were estimated for all methods. The accuracies of the AD12-ICT card and Og4C3-ELISA tests were assessed against the combination of parasitological test results. Results A total of 805 schoolchildren were examined. The overall and stratified prevalence by age group and gender detected by Og4C3-ELISA and AD12-ICT were markedly higher than the prevalence estimated by the parasitological methods. The sensitivity of the AD12-ICT card and Og4C3-ELISA tests was approximately 100%, and the positive likelihood ratios were above 6. The specificity of the Og4C3-ELISA was higher than that of the AD12-ICT at different prevalence levels. Conclusions The ICT card test should be the recommended tool for monitoring school-age populations living in areas with ongoing or completed MDA. .

Control de diarrea y dengue en escuelas primarias rurales de Colombia: protocolo de estudio para un ensayo aleatorio y controlado por conglomerados / Diarrhea and dengue control in rural primary schools in Colombia: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Antecedentes. Las enfermedades diarreicas y el dengue son graves problemas de salud pública a nivel global. Cuando el suministro de agua potable es inadecuado, el almacenamiento de agua es crucial. La contaminación fecal del agua almacenada es una fuente común de las enfermedades diarreicas y, al mismo tiempo, el agua almacenada proporciona criaderos para los mosquitos vectores del dengue. Un manejo deficiente del agua doméstica y del saneamiento son, por lo tanto, determinantes potenciales de ambas enfermedades. Poco se sabe de la importancia del agua almacenada para el riesgo combinado de la diarrea y el dengue, sin embargo, una intervención compartida podría ser importante para el desarrollo de esfuerzos en gestión y control integrado. Aun menos conocidos son los efectos de un control integrado de estas enfermedades en los entornos escolares. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar si las intervenciones contra la diarrea y el dengue reducían significativamente las enfermedades diarreicas y los factores de riesgo entomológico de dengue, en las escuelas primarias rurales de dos municipios de Cundinamarca. Metodología y diseño. Se trata de un ensayo por conglomerados, factorial de 2 x 2, controlado y de asignación aleatoria. Las instituciones elegibles fueron las escuelas rurales de los municipios de La Mesa y Anapoima en el departamento de Cundinamarca. Los estudiantes elegibles fueron los niños de las escuelas de los grados 0 a 5. Las escuelas fueron asignadas aleatoriamente a uno de los cuatro grupos del estudio: intervenciones de diarrea, intervenciones de dengue, las dos intervenciones, diarrea y dengue, y control. Las escuelas fueron estratificadas por municipio y asignadas mediante un acto público al inicio del ensayo. La variable de respuesta primaria para la diarrea fue la tasa de incidencia de diarrea en los niños de las escuelas, y para dengue, la densidad de adultos hembra de Aedes aegypti por escuela. Aproximadamente...

Background: Diarrheal diseases and dengue fever are major global health problems. Where provision of clean water is inadequate, water storage is crucial. Fecal contamination of stored water is a common source of diarrheal illness, but stored water also provides breeding sites for dengue vector mosquitoes. Poor household water management and sanitation are therefore potential determinants of both diseases. Little is known of the role of stored water for the combined risk of diarrhea and dengue, yet a joint role would be important for developing integrated control and management efforts. Even less is known of the effect of integrating control of these diseases in school settings. The objective of this trial was to investigate whether interventions against diarrhea and dengue will significantly reduce diarrheal disease and dengue entomological risk factors in rural primary schools. Methods/design: This is a 2×2 factorial cluster randomized controlled trial. Eligible schools were rural primary schools in La Mesa and Anapoima municipalities, Cundinamarca, Colombia. Eligible pupils were school children in grades 0 to 5. Schools were randomized to one of four study arms: diarrhea interventions (DIA); dengue interventions (DEN); combined diarrea and dengue interventions (DIADEN); and control (C). Schools were allocated publicly in each municipality (strata) at the start of the trial, obviating the need for allocation concealment. The primary outcome for diarrea is incidence rate of diarrhea in school children and for dengue it is density of adult female Aedes aegypti per school. Approximately 800 pupils from 34 schools were enrolled in the trial with eight schools in the DIA arm, nine in the DEN, eight in the DIADEN, and nine in the control arms. The trial was funded by the Research Council of Norway and the Lazos de Calandaima Foundation. Discussion: This is the first trial investigating...

Descentralización y reforma: ¿cuál es su impacto sobre la incidencia de malaria en los municipios colombianos? / Decentralization and health system reform: What is their impact on malaria incidence in Colombian municipalities?

Introducción. Colombia es uno de los países de América Latina con mayor incidencia de malaria. El control de la malaria en el país se lleva a cabo en el marco de un programa descentralizado de seguridad social en salud, bajo la responsabilidad de departamentos y municipios. Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto de la descentralización en el contexto del Sistema General de Seguridad Social en Salud, sobre la incidencia de malaria en municipios colombianos. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico de tendencia en municipios que notificaron, al menos, cinco casos anuales de malaria en cinco de los siete años del periodo 1998 a 2004, en el cual se solicitó información sobre indicadores de descentralización, afiliación a la seguridad social en salud y casos de malaria a entidades nacionales y a secretarías departamentales y municipales de salud. Se evaluó el comportamiento de las tasas de malaria teniendo en cuenta si el municipio era certificado o no. Se analizaron las medidas repetidas utilizando la ecuación estimada generalizada. Resultados. La certificación (Incidence Rate Ratio, IRR=2,36; IC95% 1,57-3,56), la proporción de población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas (IRR=9,35; IC95% 3,66-23,89) y la proporción de población menor de 40 años (IRR=1,18; IC95% 1,13-1,23) fueron factores asociados con el incremento de la incidencia de malaria en municipios colombianos. Conclusiones. Los factores socioeconómicos y demográficos, además del estado de certificación, se presentan como factores de riesgo para malaria en los municipios colombianos.

Introduction. Colombia is one of the Latin-American countries with higher malaria incidence and its control is the responsibility of the departments and municipalities. Objective. To assess the effect of decentralization within the context of the Social Security Health System on the incidence of malaria in Colombian municipalities. Materials and methods. An ecological trend study was carried out in municipalities which reported at least five cases of malaria in 5 of the 7 years between 1998 and 2004. Information on indicators of decentralization of the municipalities, population with health insurance in either the subsidized or contributive regimes as well as incidence of malaria was requested from the health authorities of the departments and municipalities. Socioeconomic and demographic variables were also collected. The behavior of the malaria rates was assessed in relation to the decentralization status of the municipalities. A repeated measure analysis was performed using the generalized estimating equation. Results. The decentralization status of the municipality (IRR=2.36; 95%CI: 1.57-3.56), its proportion of unmet basic needs (IRR=9.35; 95%CI: 3.66-23.89) and of population younger than 40 years of age (IRR=1.8; 95%CI: 1.13-1.23) were associated with malaria incidence in Colombian municipalities. Conclusions. Decentralization status as well as socioeconomic and demographic factors are associated with increased malaria risk in Colombian municipalities.

What not to do in medical statistics / O que não fazer em estatística médica

There have been major efforts to improve the application of statistical methods in medical research, although some errors and misconceptions persist. In this paper I will review some of the topics which most often cause problems: a) comparison of two methods of clinical measurement; b) comparison of baseline values between arms of a randomized trial; c) absence of evidence as opposed to evidence of absence; and d) regression to the mean. I will also revisit a statistical error in one of my own publications. I review some causes of the continuing misuse of statistics, and make some suggestions for modifying the education of statistical and non-statistical medical researchers in order to alleviate this.

Tem havido grandes esforços na aplicação de métodos estatísticos na pesquisa médica, embora algumas concepções equivocadas ainda persistam. No presente artigo faz-se uma revisão de alguns tópicos que frequentemente causam problemas: a) comparação de dois métodos de medidas clínicas; b) comparação de valores de base entre os braços de um ensaio randomizado; c) ausência de evidência em oposição a evidência de ausência; e d) regressão à média. Uma revisita aos erros estatísticos em uma de minhas próprias publicações também é feita. Foi feita a revisão de algumas causas do uso inadequado da estatística, assim como algumas sugestões são dadas para modificar a formação de pesquisadores médicos estatísticos e não estatísticos.

Maternal malaria during pregnancy and infant mortality rate: critical literature review and a new analytical approach.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Malaria during pregnancy is a recognised risk factor for low birth weight and probably decreases the survival of offspring, particularly during their first month of life. On the other hand, acquired maternal immunity may protect infants against malaria infection or disease. This study assesses these two opposite effects simultaneously. METHODS: We used the data of a large epidemiological study on malaria (Garki project) to analyse the impact of malaria during pregnancy on survival of offspring in their first year of life. The dataset contains 138,197 survey records, representing 12,849 subjects. Of 663 reported deliveries, 417 could be linked to survival data for the newborn. RESULTS: The mortality rate during the first year of life was independent of maternal malaria infection during pregnancy (crude rate ratio 1.0). After adjustment for malaria in infancy, the rate ratio was 1.2. The corresponding rate ratios for maternal malaria during the second half of pregnancy were 1.46 and 1.73. None of these rate ratios was statistically significant. This may be due to the small number of deaths in the first year of life with a complete record of maternal malaria (27 deaths). The infants during the first four months of life had the lowest risk for Plasmodium falciparum, R malariae and P. ovale infections which may be partly due to acquired maternal immunity. There was a positive association between malaria during pregnancy and malaria during first year of life which might be due to similarity in exposure risks within a family, or confounding effects of socioeconomic status. However, this association was weaker in the first four months of life, and in those women who contracted infection during the second half of pregnancy. This may indicate that acquired immunity is stronger in this group and partially protects babies for a few months. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: It seems that on the whole, malaria during pregnancy was not a major risk factor for infant mortality in the Garki project. These results suggest that ignoring acquired maternal immunity may overestimate the hazard of malaria during pregnancy on infant survival.

Bancroftian filariasis in an endemic area of Brazil: differences between genders during puberty

Diferenças entre os sexos quanto à susceptibilidade às doenças infecciosas têm sido observadas em vários estudos. Um inquérito de prevalência foi realizado em uma área endêmica de filariose bancroftiana na cidade de Olinda, Brasil. Todos os residentes com idade > 5 anos foram examinados pela gota espessa. Moradores com idade entre 9 e 16 anos foram entrevistados e testados para a presença de antigenemia filarial. Os dados foram analisados utilizando tabelas de contingência e modelos de regressão. O risco de microfilaraemia nos homens foi significativamente mais elevado. Meninos com idade entre 15 e 16 anos tiveram maior risco de infecção filarial do que as meninas. Os dados sugerem que variações entre os sexos na filariose podem resultar de um aumento na susceptibilidade dos homens a partir da puberdade tardia. Essa característica epidemiológica deve ser considerada ao se formularem os planos de eliminação da endemia.

Field evaluation of the whole blood immunochromatographic test for rapid bancroftian filariasis diagnosis in the northeast of Brazil

This study evaluated the whole blood immunochromatographic card test (ICT card test) in a survey performed in Northeastern Brazil. 625 people were examined by the thick blood film (TBF) and ICT card test. Residents of a non-endemic area were also tested by the whole blood card test and Og4C3. The sensitivity of the ICT card test was 94.7 percent overall, but lower in females than males, based on the reasonable assumption that TBF is 100 percent specific. However, since TBF and other methods have unknown sensitivity, the true specificity of the card test is unknown. Nevertheless, it is possible to estimate upper and lower limits for the specificity, and relate it to the prevalence of the disease. In the endemic area, the possible range of the specificity was from 72.4 percent to 100 percent. 29.6 percent of the card tests performed in the non-endemic area exhibited faint lines that were interpreted as positives. Characteristics of the method including high sensitivity, promptness and simplicity justify its use for screening of filariasis. However, detailed information about the correct interpretation in case of extremely faint lines is essential. Further studies designed to consider problems arising from imperfect standards are necessary, as is a sounder diagnostic definition for the card test